2. CONCEPTS
A contract is a way of creating a project organization. Levitt and March4 say:The problem of organizing [is] seen as one of transforming a conflict (political) system into a cooperative (rational) one. A conflict system is one in which individuals have objectives that are not jointly consistent. It organizes through exchanges and other interactions between strategic actors. A cooperative system is one in which individuals act rationally in the nameof a common objective.
Conflict systems can arise either through bounded rationality (the participants would like to act rationally but through human frailty fail to) or opportunism (the participants try to optimize their position at the expense of others). In order to reduce the chance of both of these happening, the client (who is ultimately responsible for creating the project organization and has the most to gain from its being effective) needs to:
increase communication flow on the project to ensure participants have sufficient information to behave rationally, and to reduce the chance of the deceit on which opportunism depends
MATLAB用凯塞窗设计线性相位FIR滤波器 ensure the project participants are properly incentivized so that all the project participants do indeed share a common objective本文来自辣.文~论^文·网原文请找腾讯32,49114
Appropriate governance structures (determined by the contractual relationships) need to be put in place to achieve these ends. Williamson3 says: Transaction cost analysis [is] an examination of the comparative costs of planning, adapting, and monitoring task completion under alternative governance structures ... [so as to] align transactions (which differ in their attributes) with governance structures (which differ in their costs and competencies) in a discriminating (mainly transaction cost economizing) way.
In this paper we start by looking at the cost of planning, adapting and monitoring task completion under different contract payment terms. And then we look at how the different contract types create cooperative arrangements through goal alignment. But first we define what we mean by the different contract types.
3. DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this paper we assume there are five standard forms of project contract payment terms. Throughout the rest of the paper we talk about just three, fixed price, remeasurment and cost plus. However, there are three types of remeasurment contract. We illustrate the five types with the example of a property developer seeking a contractor to decorate offices in a new office block they are developing.MATLAB因果性数字系统的时域实现
1. Cost-Plus: The contractor is repaid all their expenses, plus an agreed profit margin. The agreed profit margin can be a percentage of the out-turn cost, (cost plus percentage fee), or a fixed amount, (cost plus fixed fee). Whatever the contractor spends on painters and decorators, paint and wallpaper, is refunded, even if the unit rates are excessive and productivity rates are low.
2. Remeasurement based on a Schedule of Rates: The contractor is refunded their costs at agreed unit rates. The hours worked by painters and decorators, volume of paint and number of rolls of wall paper are measured, and the contractor paid an agreed amount per hour, litre and roll, even if the productivity levels are low.
3. Remeasurement based on a Bill of Quantities: The client pays a standard rate per metre squared of wall, based on agreed productivity rates and unit rates. The contractor will also want to claim for any delays caused by the client or other third parties.
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